Lexis & Grammar

A01 – linguistic analysis

A02 – Stages + theory

A03 – Context

 

Lexis

 Spoken: Features of spontaneous speech

-  Phatic talk/taboo language

-   Non-fluency features: fillers, hedges, ellipsis, overlap, back channel, False starts

-   Adjacency pairs

-   Grice’s maxims

-   Idiolect, sociolect

-  Transactional/Interactional talk

-  Discourse marker

-  Pragmatics

-  Paralinguistic features

-  Tag questions

-  High frequency lexis/low frequency lexis

Written:

-  Pronoun

- Adjective

- Verbs

- Adverb

- Nouns

- Conjunctions

- Determiners

 

Both:

-  Formality

-  Register

-  Discourse
-  Gender/power/technology

 

Grammar = Structure, context

-  Syntax (sentence structure)

-  Imperative (command)

-  Mitigated imperative (polite, using please)

-  Interrogative (question)

-  Declarative (statement)

-  Exclamative (!)

-  Pronouns, nouns, verbs, adjectives, modal verbs (outcome), adverbs, prepositions, determiners, conjunctions

- Semantics/pragmatics

- Noun phrases, pre-modified/post modified nouns

- Simple/compound/complex sentences

- Punctuation

Horizon Documentary

Why do we talk?

Language defines you as being human

We barely notice we do it

From birth, language is in our lives

Deb Roy – Massachusetts Institute Of Technology

Turned his home into a lab and used his own son

Had to be observed and heard 24 hours a day

‘The Speech Home Project’ highlights that semantic awareness outstrips phonological ability

Babbling turns to words to single words which turns to the two word stage to more complex grammatical structures

At 5 years old we know 5000 words, as adults we speak 15000 words a day

Noam Chomsky

Believed we have an unconscious innate understanding

But we also need to be exposed to language at an early age

Is it NATURE or NURTURE?

‘Forbidden Experiment’ – isolating a child in silence

Ofer Tchernichovski

Found a way to do the experiment

He used birds that imitate their parents like babies and isolated the chicks

Faraneh Vargha-Khadem

Studied genes in a family with speech difficulties

Found chromosome 7 found in each family member

Found that it was broken

Named it FOX-P-2 

Possible Pieces For My Investigation Data

http://www.amazon.co.uk/product-reviews/B000KKNQBK/ref=acr_dpx_hist_5?ie=UTF8&filterBy=addFiveStar&showViewpoints=0

http://www.amazon.co.uk/product-reviews/B001DUUPQ0/ref=acr_dpx_hist_5?ie=UTF8&filterBy=addFiveStar&showViewpoints=0

Robin Lackoff

As my investigation could be based on comparing the language of different genders, I am looking at possible theories I can include in my analysis.

 Robin Lackoff published a set of basic assumptions about women’s language.

Hedge: using phrases like “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”, and so on.

Use (super) polite forms: “Would you mind...”, “I'd appreciate it if...”, “...if you don't mind”.

Use tag questions: “You're going to dinner, aren't you?”

Speak in italics: intonational emphasis equal to underlining words - so, very, quite.

Use empty adjectives: divine, lovely, adorable, and so on

Use hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation: English prestige grammar and clear enunciation.

Use direct quotation: men paraphrase more often.

Have a special lexicon: women use more words for things like colours, men for sports.

Use question intonation in declarative statements: women make declarative statements into questions by raising the pitch of their voice at the end of a statement, expressing uncertainty. For example, “What school do you attend? Eton College?”

Use “wh-” imperatives: (such as, “Why don't you open the door?”)

Speak less frequently

Overuse qualifiers: (for example, “I think that...”)

Apologise more: (for instance, “I'm sorry, but I think that...”)

Use modal constructions: (such as would, should, ought to - “Should we turn up the heat?”)

Use indirect commands and requests: (for example, “My, isn't it cold in here?” - really a request to turn the heat on or close a window)

Use more intensifiers: especially so and very (for instance, “I am so glad you came!”)

Lack a sense of humour: women do not tell jokes well and often don't understand the punch line of jokes.

Grice's Maxims

QUANTITY, where one tries to be as informative as one possibly can, and gives as much information as is needed, and no more.

 

 

     QUALITY, where one tries to be truthful, and does not give information that is false or that is not supported by evidence.

 

       RELATION, where one tries to be relevant, and says things that are pertinent to the discussion.

 

 

     MANNER, when one tries to be as clear, as brief, and as orderly as one can in what one says, and where one avoids obscurity and ambiguity.

 

 We can VIOLATE them

htis means that we break the maxims so that other people do not know. If we violate the maxim of quality, we lie. If we violate the maxim of quantity by not giving enough information, if someone finds out we can be accused of 'being economical with the truth', another deceit. Violating the maxims is similar to breaking them 'illegally', just as people who steal are guilty of breaking the law. As with laws, some maxim violations can be worse than others. Lying in a court of law is disapproved, but 'white lies' are small lies to keep the social peace and are often thought as acceptable.

 

 We can FLOUT them

 If we FLOUT a maxim, we break it in a FLAGRANT way, so that it is obvious to all concerned that it has been broken. Grice distinguishes what he calls 'sentence meaning' from 'utterer's meaning' and he refers to an utterer's meaning indicated through a flout as an IMPLICATURE. So the implicate is what we have been referring to so far as the 'extra meaning'.

AS English Coursework

 

Paris Parfaite

 

 

 

It was time.  Excitement bubbled inside of me as I could just see the edge of the land. A whole new country. A whole new experience. People were rushing around buying snacks and presents from duty free. Mothers chased after their young ones shouting their name’s getting no response in return. I was just taking it all in. The waves, the sunlight, the sharp, cool breeze. It hit my face giving me chills down my back whilst my hair waved behind me out of control. I smiled slightly. This was the dawn of summer.

It was the first day we were going into Disneyland Paris. It was budding morning and even strolling up to the park gates, excitement was bubbling inside me. The pale orange sun was rising in front of the hinted blue sky ready to start a new day. The classic Disney music playing soothingly in the background somehow made queuing a whole lot easier to put up with. I looked around taking in the artwork. The Mickey Mouse head discretely hidden in the freshly sprayed paving tiles had obviously been hand carved into each and every square inch of the park. The character of the grand hotel stood bold amongst the shining light from the sun. It had a pale pink base coat topped with a white curved rim around the whole of the building. People flooded inside determined to catch a glimpse of what it held. It really was a whole new land. ‘Good morning and welcome to Disney Land Paris’. Each employee smiled and thanked every entrée of the park keeping their character. Their pleated gowns graced the floor of the grounds whilst their hair was tightly curled and pinned against their head. They wore name badges surrounded by Disney collector’s pins glimmering in the sunlight, it caught my eye. We entered the gates keeping tight the ticket in my palm. I looked down the street with quirky buildings either side marking the way to the castle. Sleeping beauty’s castle was standing elevated in the centre. Its flags gently swayed with the movement of the breeze. Its towers touched the sky and its entrance was open. I                          walked towards it not letting it leave my sight. The smell of popcorn swiftly flew past me making me lose concentration for a second. There was sweet candy floss, salty chips, mouth-watering chicken and bright multi-coloured sweets all freshly wrapped and displayed on old fashioned carts. I could taste the Disney air.

The sun radiated down on me making my head toast. The heat smothered my face as the beams from the sun made me squint making it hard for me to see. I gazed up at the sky seeing the faint image of a Mickey Mouse balloon floating in the distance. I could hear the softened weeps of a child who had undoubtedly lost their balloon. It was busy - swamped with people from around the globe.  People had already started queuing to meet their favourite characters. I joined them in the wait. A grin grew on my face as Minnie Mouse emerged from the back drop. She waved and blew kisses to her little fans at the front of the line. There were people of all ages here; young couples, families, school trips, anyone. We all waited patiently one behind the other trying to get a glimpse of Minnie. Her red bow sat perfectly in between her ears and her spotty dress swiftly spun with every movement she made. I would never be too old for this. I could see the passion on everyone’s faces as they got closer to the front of the line. The wait was definitely worthwhile.

It wouldn’t be right if we didn’t visit the heart of Paris so the next day that’s what we set out to do. We comfortably settle on the train prepared for the day ahead. As I glanced around I could see us gradually getting closer to the craziness of the capital. Our first stop was the Arc De Triumph. We made our way underground ignoring the smell of week old human waste and made our way to the peak of the monument. The spiral staircase seemed to go on forever surrounded by cold, worn, stone bricks. I shivered. From the top we could see for miles. Each road that branched away from the monument was packed with cars, bicycles and pedestrians all heading to their own destination. I could see each individual street lined with the original paving stones. The Eiffel tower stood tall reaching up to the galaxy. It looked somehow modest from our point of view. Each piece of architecture had its own unique design marking the frame of each street. I played historic French music in my head blocking out the horns from the people who obviously weren’t as glad as I was to be here. It’s hard to believe we are in the same world as back home, everything’s so different here. Good different.

We were on our way trying to map out our route. Everything you could dream of was here in one city. There were cafes on every street joint with people dining inside. As I walked past I could smell the freshly baked croissants and cakes pulling me into the café. I could taste the coffee in the air as the staff rushed around shouting to each other – ‘How may I help you ma ’dam’ Somehow they even made English, our own language, sound better than when we speak it ourselves. Just across the street, a millionaire’s playground stood holding boutiques only the richest could afford to enter. I peered inside catching a glimpse of the handmade Gucci bags coated in a glossy finish. I could only dream. I was surrounded by artwork. I could see authentic designs with engravings imbedded inside, each telling their own story. Compared to the grubby, grim office blocks in London, this was incredible. London seemed nothing to me right now.

We made our way towards the Eiffel Tower, stretching our necks backwards to try and get the best view of it. I look around as people queued for miles to be able to reach the top. Cameras were flashing in all directions as people fight to take the best shot, not actually looking at the beauty with their own eyes. I turned 360 degrees taking in every inch of culture around me. We made our way down the river. Each bridge that stretched over the complete width of the water was made differently. We passed some markets full of people browsing goods, whilst sellers holler out all different prices at them trying to make some sells for their living. One bridge stood out to me; The lock bridge. We made our way on top of the platform, as my eyes brushed over every individual lock with its own biography. There were love memos, names and even proposals amongst the writing. You would not find this anywhere else in the world but Paris.

I will return here permanently one day.

AS English Coursework

Keeping up with the Kardashians..doing nothing!

We all know the Kardashians for the time that they did that thing…oh no it was the time that they helped that person, or actually, they have done nothing. They are just that extensive family that are always on the news. They can do anything and the thing they do suddenly becomes ‘cool’. Kourtney, Kim, Khloe and Rob basically had their lives already planned just by being produced by Kris and Robert Kardashian. Whether they’re on TV, in magazines or on the internet, you can never get away from them. Even headlines like, ‘Kim Kardashian broke her nail today!’ and just like that, the world stops turning.

Depressing is the term I would use, being polite. It is ludicrous.  Why do you want to follow their lives, shouldn’t you be focusing on your own? It makes me howl when I see how dramatic they are, when they as a family, have the easiest job on the planet. Being the Kardashians. Why can’t I be one? Oh yes, because I am a Willmott. When someone mentions the Kardashians, I always think of Kim, I know you do too. She is the cherished one after all. Ok, I get it, her ass is the size of Antarctica, but I do not need to log on to twitter and see a close up portrait of it. I would appreciate it if you kept them for your own enjoyment only, thanks. It is hard not to feel sorry for the others as they have such a tough life of being Kim’s siblings, how must they cope? There we are; working, cooking, sleeping and repeating. And yet they are; sunbathing, travelling sleeping and repeating. I am embarrassed to say I have watched their show; it was only to see what the fuss was about, which I later found out was nothing.

Keeping up with the Kardashians, the spectacle put on channel 151 constantly throughout the day. It is on right from the moment the majority of people get home from school and work, what a coincidence. It’s almost as if they assume people rush home to watch it, they couldn’t be more mistaken. I surge home to make sure I catch the schedule on before the Kardashians. Somehow they manage to fit the whole household into a prolonged one hour programme which is astonishing since there are enough of them to create a brigade. It is horrifying turning over the channel to be bombarded by shrieks and wails of Kardashian women.  They are a pack of hyenas – my TV volume goes straight from a twenty two to a two. I might kick-start a programme. If the Kardashians can, I’m sure Keeping up with the Willmotts would be just as pleasing, if not more.

Robert Kardashian (1944-2003) the reason this family started yet, he is forgotten about. I have no doubt that he is missed about but how can he be remembered when all we see is pictures of Kim’s naked photo shoot. Everybody always thinks she’s the oldest but she is the one that is supposed to have middle child syndrome – if you are a middle child you can relate. You may look up to her as an exemplar but let’s not forget that her latest scandal is misplacing her child. Just because Kim did it, it’s still not cool kids. There’s not much to say about Kourtney, she’s Kim’s sister by the way. She’s the oldest but smallest and I could fall asleep faster than you can say Kardashians by the time she’s finished a sentence. Khloe; the youngest girl and ‘fattest’ as she’s known to the population. If she is fat then it’s fair to say the rest of us are morbidly obese. Is she even a Kardashian? Apparently yes but with a face like that and blonde hair, I beg to differ. I think that’s just about all of them..wait, there’s Rob.  Who is Rob you ask? He is the youngest of the siblings. He should be an A-list celebrity with that sock line of his. That’s always been a dream of mine, to create that perfect pair of socks. I’m resentful. Lastly there’s Kris, the business women that has accomplished the business that I am not aware of, what a triumph. They make it indisputable that their tremendous achievement is their inventory. They have a clothes store called ‘Dash’, how authentic. Apparently that’s how they make all their investment but we all know that’s not legitimate.

The Jenners.  Who you ask? You must know Bruce Jenner, the Olympian. Winning a gold medal is a good goal which is respectable. For the rest of them, I have nothing positive to convey. Kendall and Kylie Jenner. No I haven’t made a mistake, they are not Kardashians and I bet that’s news for you. Kendall, the second youngest yet twice the size of the oldest, Kourtney. She probably has every girl’s dream being a towering, slim, high fashion model yet she still finds something to object about on every episode of their show. Whether it’s where they have decided to go on vacation that year or what’s for dinner, it’s all sincere stuff. Kylie is living the perfect life of a sixteen year old, with a Mercedes as her first car and a Gucci brimming wardrobe this shows she has everything she could ever want. She’s the delightful ‘Goth chick’ that everyone drools over on Instagram yet her face is essentially illustrated on. You’d guess her lips were authentic until you actually look strictly at one of her selfies with her famous pout and you can witness her natural lip line, disgraceful.  Her make-up artist is slacking a bit. Occasionally we do see a glimpse of Brody and Brandon. That’s Bruce’s two older youngsters by the way. No wonder they felt un-included in the family, they are competing with 5 women, good luck.

Kanye West. He actually had made a living for himself until he evidently got bored of doing that and decided to marry Kim. I bet he thought that was the effortless option, he must not have realised what he was pledging in to. North, South, East, West, I can’t remember but it’s courteous to say she has a painless life ahead of her. Scott Disick I mean the ‘Lord’. Then again, he did decide this himself and changed his status to this overnight. This time tomorrow, I will be ‘Lady’ to you. Mason and Penelope are quite charming but who pays attention to them now that North is present, nobody.

I will admit one thing.  They are somehow engaging to enough of society to keep them in the public eye. I suppose you would be pretty courageous if a fraction of the population wanted to be you and it must not be easy to scan nasty articles like this one about yourself online and in magazines, but you know they do their profession and I have to do mine.

To finalise, if I haven’t made myself clear enough, I do not like them and I never will. I think they’re a misuse of territory and time and maybe they should not earn more than men and women risking their lives for their country, but that’s just my opinion. For those of you who do adore them, it must be so tough for you to keep up with the Kardashians doing nothing. If their career is to make everyone loath them, it works.

Theorists

Theorists to remember

Lakoff:

• Women are more likely to hedge e.g. sort of
• Women more likely to use polite forms
• Use Tag questions – to seek support
• 
  
  Speak in italics – reaaaally
• Directly quote
• Apologises more
• Use indirect commands
• Lack a sense of humour
• Use more adverbs.

Tannen:

• Status v support
• Orders v proposals
• Advice v understanding
• Information v feelings
• Independent v intimacy
• Conflict v compromise

Zinnerman + West

• Males do 90% of interrupting
• Women desire to be quieter in conversation

Trudgill:

• Mostly females would pronounce the ‘H’

• Overt Prestige – females use to seek status
• Covert Prestige – males use non-standard English to seek status

Fishman:

• ‘Shift Work’ – keeps the conversation going
• Asks questions/keeps the conversation going